Protein targeting (1)

This article deals with protein targeting in eukaryotes except where noted.

Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports proteins to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. Sorting targets can be the inner space of an organelle, any of several interior membranes, the cell's outer membrane, or its exterior via secretion. This delivery process is carried out based on information contained in the protein itself. Correct sorting is crucial for the cell; errors can lead to diseases.

Targeting signals

Targeting signals are the pieces of information that enable the cellular transport machinery to correctly position a protein inside or outside the cell. This information is contained in the polypeptide chain or in the folded protein. The continuous stretch of amino acid residues in the chain that enables targeting are called signal peptides or targeting peptides. There are two types of targeting peptides, the presequences and the internal targeting peptides. The presequences of the targeting peptide are often found at the N-terminal extension and is composed of between 6-136 basic and hydrophobic amino acids.In case of peroxisomes the targeting sequence is on the C-terminal extension mostly. Other signals are composed by parts which are separate in the primary sequence. To function, these components have to come together on the protein surface by folding. They are called signal patches. In addition, protein modifications like glycosylations can induce targeting.

Protein translocation

In 1970, Günter Blobel conducted experiments on the translocation of proteins across membranes. He was awarded the 1999 Nobel prize for his findings. He discovered that many proteins have a signal sequence, that is, a short amino acid sequence at one end that functions like a postal code for the target organelle. The translation of mRNA into protein by a ribosome takes place within the cytosol. If the synthesized proteins "belong" in a different organelle, they can be transported there in either of two ways, depending on the protein.

Cotranslational translocation

The N-terminal signal sequence of the protein is recognized by a signal recognition particle (SRP) while the protein is still being synthesized on the ribosome. The synthesis pauses while the ribosome-protein complex is transferred to a SRP receptor on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a membrane-enclosed organelle. There, the nascent protein is inserted into the Sec61 translocation complex (also known as the translocon) that passes through the ER membrane. The signal sequence is immediately cleaved from the polypeptide once it has been translocated into the ER by signal peptidase in secretory proteins. This signal sequence processing differs for some ER transmembrane proteins. Within the ER, the protein is first covered by a chaperone protein to protect it from the high concentration of other proteins in the ER, giving it time to fold correctly. Once folded, the protein is modified as needed (for example, by glycosylation), then transported to the Golgi apparatus for further processing and goes to its target organelles or is retained in the ER by various ER retention mechanisms.

Posttranslational translocation

Even though most proteins are cotranslationally translocated, some are translated in the cytosol and later transported to their destination. This occurs for proteins that go to a mitochondrion, a chloroplast, or aperoxisome (proteins that go to the latter have their signal sequence at the C terminus). Also, proteins targeted for the nucleus are translocated post-translation. They pass through the nuclear envelope via nuclear pores.

Transmembrane proteins

The amino acid chain of transmembrane proteins, which often are transmembrane receptors, passes through a membrane one or several times. They are inserted into the membrane by translocation, until the process is interrupted by a stop-transfer sequence, also called a membrane anchor sequence. These complex membrane proteins are at the moment mostly understood using the same model of targeting that has been developed for secretory proteins. However, many complex multi-transmembrane proteins contain structural aspects that do not fit the model. Seven transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors (which represent about 5% of the genome of humans) mostly do not have an amino-terminal signal sequence. In contrast to secretory proteins, the first transmembrane domain acts as the first signal sequence, which targets them to the ER membrane. This also results in the translocation of the amino terminus of the protein into the ER membrane lumen. This would seem to break the rule of "co-translational" translocation which has always held for mammalian proteins targeted to the ER. This has been demonstrated with opsin with in vitro experiments. A great deal of the mechanics of transmembrane topology and folding remains to be elucidated.

Sorting of proteins to mitochondria

Most mitochondrial proteins are synthesized as cytosolic precursors containing uptake peptide signals. Cytosolic chaperones deliver preproteins to channel linked receptors in the mitochondrial membrane. Thepreprotein with presequence targeted for the mitochondria is bound by receptors and the General Import Pore (GIP) (Receptors and GIP are collectively known as Translocase of Outer Membrane or TOM) at theouter membrane. The preprotein is translocated through TOM as hairpin loops. The preprotein is transported through the intermembrane space by small TIMs (which also acts as molecular chaperones) to the TIM23 or 22 (Translocase of Inner Membr

ane) at the inner membrane. Within the matrix the targeting sequence is cleaved off by mtHsp70. Three mitochondrial outer membrane receptors are known:

TOM20, TOM22 and TOM70
TOM70: Binds to internal targeting peptides and acts as a docking point for cytosolic chaperones.

TOM20: Binds presequences
TOM22: Binds both presequences and internal targeting peptides

The TOM channel is a cation specific high conductance channel with a molecular weight of 410 kDa and a pore diameter of 21Å.

The presequence translocase23 (TIM23) is localized to the mitochondial inner membrane and acts a pore forming protein which binds precursor proteins with its N-terminal. TIM23 acts a translocator for preproteins for the mitochondrial matrix, the inner mitochondrial membrane as well as for the intermembrane space. TIM50 is bound to TIM23 at the inner mitochondrial side and found to bind presequences. TIM44 is bound on the matrix side and found binding to mtHsp70.

The presequence translocase22 (TIM22) binds preproteins exclusively bound for the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Mitochondrial matrix targeting sequences are rich in positively charged amino acids and hydroxylated ones.

Proteins are targeted to submitochondrial compartments by multiple signals and several pathways.

Targeting to the outer membrane, intermembrane space, and inner membrane often requires another signal sequence in addition to the matrix targeting sequence.

Sorting of proteins to chloroplasts

The preprotein for chloroplasts may contain a stromal import sequence or a stromal and thylakoid targeting sequence. The majority of preproteins are translocated through the Toc and Tic complexes located within the chloroplast envelope. In the stroma the stromal import sequence is cleaved off and folding as well as intra-chloroplast sorting to thylakoids continues. Proteins targeted to the envelope of chloroplasts usually lack cleavable sorting sequence.